Butterfly Species List:
Factors that determine the list for a forest
Rosli Omar
20 Jan 2023. Updated 15 April 2023
When we go butterfly watching, or butterflying, we should list the species seen. Here we focus butterflying in the forest habitat. What are the factors determining the list of butterfly species seen in a forest? From my experience and perspective, these factors are:
1.Size of habitat
The bigger the area the larger the number of species. A bigger area has more micro-habitats and thus more species adapted to those micro-habitats. Bigger areas too provide more resources especially food and more mating partners. Without enough partners, inbreeding occurs resulting in genetic diseases and could lead to species die-out. Thus, bigger areas have a more complete ecosystem. A given area in a bigger more complete ecosystem has more species and population abundance than say that same area as an island when surrounded by development.
2.A varied habitat
Example, a forest consisting of primary forest and secondary forest has more species than just one or the other habitat. On the other hand, we have to consider this: say a forest is initially primary, then a part is cleared and replaced by scrub vegetation; the primary part would now have less species (the less the area the less species abundance. 90% less area, species are halved) but an increase from the scrub parts. Is the total species list now (primary + scrub) greater than the original species list (noting that primary forests have a greater species diversity than scrub or any other)?
3.Maturity of forest
Mature forests have more species than young forests than overgrown plantations. Mature forests have the complete structure of a tropical forest – the top-most emergent layer, the canopy below, the upper, middle, and ground levels. Each layer provides its own micro-habitats with its own species (some may overlap). Presence of ground mammals such as wild boar (and thus leeches) is a sign of a mature forest. Overgrown plantations, e.g. rubber, have a simpler structure, and with many trees of a single species (rubber) lack the varied micro-habitats. They too usually lack ground mammals like wild boar and thus no leeches.
4.Wetter forests have more species than drier forests
Wetter forest have more vegetation and thus more food and places to hide from predators. Drier forests are usually smaller forests often surrounded by development i.e., a drier and hotter outside environment. Rivers and streams running in a forest help to make it a wetter forest.
5.The number and variation of trails
More trails will go through more micro-habitats and thus more species. Open trails in a forest render forest and forest edge species. Narrow trails under shade more likely render forest species that do not venture to the forest edge for sunlight. But note that more trails disturb the ecosystem, e.g. by making the ground compact and thus not suitable for life under it, and of course, trails destroy the vegetation. This reduces the number of species. There is then an optimum number of trails for a given forest to obtain the optimum species list.
6.The number and variation of visits
The more visits taken will produce more species especially if spread-out throughout the year taking into account flowering and fruiting seasons as well as dry and wet seasons.
7.Number of observers
Butterflies react to movement. Thus, more observers may result in butterflies not settling down, not perching to be photographed or be viewed. But more observers detect more butterflies. A compromise is called for. Maybe not more than 3 if observing within narrow trails.
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The Pangsun-Congkak-Perdik complex is a good example that shows that the bigger the area the larger the butterfly list especially if the habitats are varied. This forest complex in inland Selangor is a continuous forest with Perdik in the south-west, Congkak in the middle and Pangsun (Gunung Nuang Recreational Forest or Taman Eko Gunung Nuang as stated at the gate to the forest) in the north-east. See Map 1. This complex extends to the Titiwangsa Main Range.
Map 1. Perdik-Congkak-Pangsun forest complex of Selangor.
Perdik is a good mature forest, although not fully. It is the most mature of the forest complex. At its entrance, there is a single track big enough for a single car for 500m. Here we can see forest species that come to the forest edge (F,FE). At the end there is a single track wide enough for a single person for some 2 km (although this has not been explored fully and species count doesn’t include this trail) and thus more likely to spot forest-shade species (F).
Perdek, a reasonably good mature forest.
Congkak is a recreational forest with a car track in open forest with little ground vegetation on one side of the track for 800m. Here most species are forest species that visit open ground (F,FE).
Update 15/4/2023. A single person-wide trail was discovered, the Cenuang Trail, of about 3 km to Bukit Cenuang, see pic below. As shown, the trees are not big, not a mature forest which reflects Congkak forest in general. I tried the trail to about half the length (to the end of a stream trail). Some forest-shade butterfly species were recorded but not updated here,
Congkak, a single person-wide trail to Bukit Cenuang.
Pangsun at its entrance is an overgrown pine plantation with a rich ground vegetation. Within it is a single track big enough for a car (i.e. for F,FE species) for 300m, 2 tracks for a single person for a total of 800m (for F species). Also, a single car-sized “dusun track” on the left of the main area through mostly orchards with some mature forests for 3km (again for F,FE).
Wild boar marks were seen with some leeches present in all three forests.
Pangsun, main track from the entrance to the Taman Eko Gunung Nuang park.
Pangsun-Congkak-Perdik: 102 species with 93 F+ species, 19 F only species
Pangsun: 53 species with 46 F+ species, 10 F only species
Congkak: 38 species with 37 F+ species, 5 F only species
Perdik: 38 species with 35 F+ species, 7 F only species
The Shah Alam Community Forest (SACF), 79 species (actually 95 but 16 identified only to genus or family level) with 55 F+ species, and 28 F only species, illustrates a few of the above factors for the species count. For a small forest, 160 Ha, this is a good list. See Map 2. One reason is, it is connected to the Taman Botani Nasional Shah Alam (TBNSA, 640 Ha of mainly good forest) to the south, and to the north the Bukit Cherakah Forest Reserve (BCFR, 1620 Ha of good forest) albeit separated by a wide road, the Pesiaran Mokhtar Dahari. SACF is a relatively small forest but a large part of it is very good forest with big trees and thus provide more species. Wild boar marks were seen and a few leeches were present. (Animal surveys have shown that tapirs are present as well as the most trafficked animal, the Sunda Pangolin). It has many and varied trails – open and shaded. And many trips were made: 18 in total with 10 together with a bird survey team of 4-5 observers that helped to spot the butterflies (Nov- Dec), and 8 on my own (Apr-May). The negative factor was it was bordered on two sides by “development” making it quite a dry forest.
The SCAF list of 28 forest-shade species compared to the bigger complex Pangsun-Congkak-Perdik’s 19 is due to the higher number of shaded trails as well as the higher number of trips, and observers.
To better SACF ecosystem it should be connected to BCFR via a wildlife crossing over the Persiaran Mokhtar Dahari. 10 tapirs have been killed trying to cross the road in the last decade. The fence separating SACF from TBNSA should be dismantled to allow for free movement of wildlife, enabling better resources and more mating partners.
Map 2. SACF, showing its trails in white, flanked by development to the left and right, with Bukit Cherakah Forest Reserve to the north, separated by the Pesiaran Mokhtar Dahari, and Taman Botani Nasional Shah Alam to the south.
SACF, Backyard Trail. A small area but with mature big trees, the biggest among all the Selangor-KL forests mentioned here.
Compare SACF to Bukit Lagong with its 81 species including 53 F+ species, 25 F only species and SACF’s equivalent numbers of 79, 55 F+ and 28 F. This is about the same numbers for all categories. For Bkt Lagong’s much bigger area (3700 Ha, bigger even than BCFR-SACF-TBNSA complex at about 2500 Ha), it produced only about the same numbers as SACF. See Map 3. This is due to BL’s forest being younger, without the big trees of parts
Map 3. Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, an island forest, surrounded by roads.
of SACF; a much smaller number of trails that do not penetrate across the whole forest; a smaller number of trips, 11 (versus SACF’s 18), where only on 3 trips (versus SACF’s 10) was another person accompanying (for a bird survey, versus SACF’s 4-5 persons) helping to spot butterflies. Wild boar marks were seen and leeches were present. It would not be a surprise if in reality there were more species in Bkt Lagong than SACF even though it was a younger forest than SACF.
Bukit Lagong, its forest was last logged 1985, so the forest is quite good.
Update on Bukit Lagong 31/3/2023: After four more trips in Feb and March, i.e. 16 trips in total, and discovery of a new trail of about 2 km (a single person trail under shade i.e. good for forest only species) the species count is:
Bukit Lagong, 105 total (plus 1 identified only to family level, a nymph) with 87 F+ species, 38 F only species, versus:
SACF, 79 species (in total, 95 but 16 identified only to genus or family level) with 55 F+ species, and 28 F only species
There are a few more trails still not covered which could bring up the species count further.
Pangsun’s good numbers are intriguing: 53 species with 46 F+ species, 10 F only species. As mentioned, it is an overgrown pine plantation. But unlike Bkt Kiara’s overgrown rubber plantation it has a luxuriant ground vegetation, i.e., not a dry forest. (Pines do not have luxuriant foliage unlike rubber trees and thus light can reach the ground storey. Presence of a good-sized stream also helps.) This helps to have a bigger species list. Also, apart from the overgrown pine plantation it has a dusun/swidden agriculture land which is quite green. Another factor, it is not an island forest surrounded by development; it is connected to bigger forests all the way to the Titiwangsa. Other factors are a good number of varied sized trails, and many trips were taken even though earlier trips were mainly for birding. There is also the possibility of minerals on the trail off the entrance because there are always butterflies on it. Male butterflies “puddle” for minerals necessary for their sperms to be healthy.
Templer Park (Taman Rimba Templer) is also intriguing with 37 species including 35 F+ species and 16 F species obtained in just 5 trips. This, for a small survey area of secondary forest with a lot of bamboo. See Map 4. Note, BLFR is across Jalan Rawang. Thus, it is quite
Map 4. Templer Park (Taman Rimba Templer) with Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve across from Jalan Rawang.
surprising to obtain such a good list of species. The rich luxuriant trails, although few, help: It is a one-person sized track running along a good-sized stream initially quite open due to lack of tall trees with a rich ground vegetation for 400m continued by a shaded trail also with a rich ground vegetation, but still not many big trees, of 500m to a waterfall, i.e., a wet forest. (Also, a poorer single-person trail along a ledge, mostly relatively open, of 400m that exits to Jalan Ipoh.) It helps too that the forest is connected all the way to the Titiwangsa. Wild boar marks were seen, and leeches present. More trips varied across the year would produce more species.
Templer Park, a wet forest. A stream running through it.
Bukit Kiara, 34 species with 30 F+ species and 8 F species, is an example for overgrown plantations, more typical than Pangsun’s. It is an overgrown rubber plantation of 190 Ha. See Map 5. It seems like a decent enough count but to get this number required 13 trips on its many trails, mostly shaded ones. It helps too that it is flanked by a golf course on its south-east side (as opposed to being flanked by “development”), and in the north by the Sungai Pencala Malay Reserve land which is mainly orchard thus cooling Bukit Kiara. Otherwise, it is surrounded by development and thus it is quite a dry forest with many trails having low vegetation and thus low species count. No wild boar marks seen and no leeches present.
More species could be had from areas north of the Bkt Kiara peak which for lack of time was not surveyed.
Bukit Kiara, a dry overgrown rubber plantation although this area is quite luxuriant being near a stream.
Bukit Kiara would be a richer forest if it could be connected to Kota Damansara Community Forest (325 Ha) via a wildlife/flora passage through Sg Penchala. See Map 6. This should be a priority. Also, a closely knit fence there that prevents wildlife movement and thus affecting the ecosystem should be removed.
Map 5. Bukit Kiara, 190 Ha, flanked by development on three sides and thus quite a dry forest.
Taman Negara Kuala Tahan, 85 species with 81 F+ species and 21 F only species, is worth a mention. Total area is 434,000 Ha but the trails covered were at most of 5km from Park HQ. See Map 7. Many trips were made (before 2015) but mainly focused on birds with butterflies as an opportunistic activity. Forest is mainly primary with a small swampy Swamp Loop. Ground vegetation is moderate as in typical primary forests since not much light penetrate the upper layers. Wild boar and other ground mammals were present, and leeches were abundant. Given that butterflies were only photographed as a secondary activity, the numbers, especially the shade butterflies (which needed more focus), were good. No doubt there were more butterflies to be had.
Taman Negara Kuala Tahan, a primary forest of mature big trees.
Map 7. Taman Negara Kuala Tahan.
Obtaining a fair species count across different forests
To compare fairly the number of species across different forests the following factors are necessary:
- Same number of visits.
- Visits done at the same time of the year to take into account of the seasons.
- Same team members i.e. same skills, same number of observers etc.
- The same number and length of trails if this is within our control (usually, not).
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Species count in a few selected places (some already mentioned above)
1.Pangsun-Congkak.Perdik Forest complex, Selangor.
Total: 102 species with 93 F+ species, 19 F only species
Pangsun: 53 species with 46 F+ species, 10 F only species
Congkak: 38 species with 37 F+ species, 5 F only species
Perdik: 38 species with 35 F+ species, 7 F only species
This forest complex is a continuous forest with Perdik in the south-west, Sungai Congkak in the middle and Pangsun in the north-east. The complex extends to the Titiwangsa Main Range.
Perdik. At its entrance, there is a single track big enough for a single car for 500m. Here we can see forest species that come to the forest edge (F,FE). At the end there is a single track wide enough for a single person for 300m (including a track to a waterfall but rest of it was lost by a fallen tree) and thus more likely to spot forest-shade species (F).
Congkak is a recreational good mature forest with a car track in open forest with little ground vegetation on one side of the track for 800m. Here most species are forest species that visit open ground (F,FE).
Pangsun at its entrace (Taman Eko Gunung Nuang?) is an overgrown pine plantation with a rich ground vegetation. Within it is a single track big enough for a car (i.e. F,FE species) for 300m, 2 tracks for a single person for a total of 800m. Also a single car-sized “dusun track” on the left of main area through mostly orchards for 3km.
Presence of wild boar and some leeches.
2.Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve
81 species with 53 F+ species, 25 F only species.
Size: 3700 Hectares.
11 trips made of which 2 trips with 2 others doing bird survey.
It is a relatively good secondary forest, last logged possibly 1985. 2 car-sized open tracks of 2 km each, and 2 single-person tracks i.e. shaded, of 1km and 3 km. It’s an island forest due to roads surrounding it. Across the 6-lane Rawang Road 1 is Templer Park. Presence of wild boar and leeches.
3.Shah Alam Community Forest
79 species (actually 95 but 16 identified only to genus or family level) with 55 F+ species, and 28 F only species.
18 trips made. 10 trips part of a bird survey team of 4-5 persons on average.
Size: 160 Hectares. It is a mix of mainly mature forest with big, tall trees and a smaller area of secondary growth. Many shaded recreations trails. SACF is sandwiched between Bukit Cherakah Forest Reserve (1620 Ha, separated by the Pesiaran Mokhtar Dahari) and Taman Botani Nasional Shah Alam (640 Ha, separated by a fence). It is also a corridor for wildlife between BCFR and TBNSA, hindered by Pesiaran and the fence. Wild boar marks seen with some leeches. The BCFR-SACF-TBNSA complex is an island forest, surrounded by development.
4.Templer Park
37 species with 35 F+ species, 16 F (forest only) species.
5 trips.
TP is a forest connected to the Titiwangsa Main Range. A secondary forest with a lot of bamboo. A one-person sized track initially quite open due to lack of tall trees with a rich ground vegetation for 400m continued by a shaded trail also with a rich ground vegetation, but still not many big trees, of 500m to a waterfall. Also, a same-sized trail along a ledge, mostly relatively open, of 400m that exits to Jalan Ipoh. Presence of wild boar and leeches.
5.Kuala Langat North Forest Reserve
35 species (30 identified, 5 species identified to genus or family level only). 25 F+, 12 F species.
7 trips made.
Size: 950 Ha. KLNFR consisted of peatswamp forest and dryland primary forest with some big trees further inside the peatswamp forest. Also, a degraded forest some 40% of the whole area. 1 trip along canal at forest edge, 1 in degraded area and 5 in peatswamp-dryland forest. Presence of wild boar with only a few leeches.
6.Bukit Kiara
34 species with 30 F+ species, 8 F species
190 Ha of overgrown rubber estate. No wild boar.
13 trips made.
6.Kota Damansara Community Forest
9 species total, 9 F+, and 4 F species.
3 trips made, 2 in November, 1 in Feb.
325 Ha (800 acres) of island, secondary, quite a dry forest, surrounded by housing. Forest rather sparse even though it’s a secondary forest of small trees. Quite a few trails mostly just slightly bigger than a single-person wide, lacking in side-vegetation for butterflies to perch except a few places such as around the one-and-only lake. Too much debris on sides of trails (overzealous maintenance?). No wild boar marks seen.
7.Taman Negara Kuala Tahan
85 species with 81 F+ (forests and other habitats) species, 21 F only species
Many trips made but mainly focus on birds with butterflies as an opportunistic activity.
Forest was mainly primary with a small swampy Swamp Loop with a good number of shaded trails. Presence of wild boar and abundant leeches.
8.Fraser’s Hill – Including Gap
63 species.
Many trips made but mainly focused on birds with butterflies as an opportunistic activity.
Forest was mainly montane primary with a garden town-centre. There are several shaded trails. Presence of wild boar and leeches.